Recent discoveries have raised expectations that stem cells may be a source of replacement cells and tissues that are damaged in the course of disease, infection, or because of congenital abnormalities. Various types of putative stem cells differentiate when they divide, maturing into cells that can carry out the unique functions of particular tissues, such as the heart, the liver, or the brain.
A particularly important discovery has been the development of pluripotent stem cells, which are thought to have the potential to differentiate into almost any cell type. The next challenge in developing the technology is to obtain dependable conditions for driving differentiation towards particular cell lineages that are desired for therapeutic purposes.
Early work on embryonic stem cells was done in mice (reviewed in Robertson, Meth. Cell Biol. 75:173, 1997; and Pedersen, Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 6:543, 1994). Most methods of differentiating mouse pluripotent stem cells involve three strategies, often in combination:                Permitting the cells to form aggregates or embryoid bodies, in which cells interact and begin to differentiate into a heterogeneous cell population with characteristics of endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm cells. The embryoid bodies are then harvested and cultured further so that the differentiation can continue.        Inducing the cells to differentiate using soluble factors that promote particular forms of differentiation, optionally with simultaneous withdrawal of factors that inhibit differentiation        Transfecting the cells with a tissue-specific gene, that has the effect of directing the cell towards the tissue type desired        
Mummery et al. (Cell Differentiation Dev. 30:195, 1990) compared characteristics of mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells with two embryonal carcinoma lines. The cells were differentiated either by letting cells form aggregates, optionally in the presence of retinoic acid (RA) or dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO); or letting the cells grow to confluence, optionally depriving the culture of leukemia inhibiting factor (LIF) or differentiation inhibiting activity (DIA) found in high concentrations in medium conditioned by Buffalo rat liver (BRL) cells. The study suggested that mixed endoderm-mesoderm cells were obtained after removing inhibitors of differentiation, and parietal endoderm-like cells were obtained by RA induction.
Grendon et al. (Dev. Biol. 177:332, 1996) generated an endothelial cell line capable of embryonic vasculogenesis from mouse ES cells. The cells were transfected with the early region of SV40 Large T antigen, and then cultured in medium comprising homogenized mouse testes, which promotes differentiation. An endothelial line was derived that expresses endothelial cell specific proteins and can be induced by basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and LIF to proliferate to form vascular tubes and microcapillary anastomoses.
Van Inzen et al. (Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1312:21, 1996) differentiated mouse embryonic stem cells by incubating the cells for at least 3 days with retinoic acid. The cells were cultured either as a monolayer, or as embryoid bodies on a non-adhesive substrate. The cells obtained from culture stained positively for the neuronal markers NF-165 and GAP-43, and were electrically excitable in a patch clamp assay.
Dinsmore et al. (Cell Transplant. 5:131, 1996) report a method for controlled differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells in vitro to produce populations containing neurons or skeletal muscle cells. Embryoid bodies were allowed to form, and were induced using dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) to differentiate to muscle cells, or using retinoic acid to differentiate to neurons. Muscle cells were also made by transfecting ES cells with an expression vector for muscle-specific protein MyoD.
Rathjen et al. (J. Cell Sci. 112:601, 1999, and International Patent Publication WO 99/53021) formed a primitive ectoderm-like (EPL) cell population from mouse. ES cells using conditioned medium from the human hepatocarcinoma line HepG2. When grown in medium without feeder cells, but including LIF, the mouse ES cells reportedly grew as a homogeneous population with most colonies displaying domed morphology. Differentiation was effected by culturing the mouse ES cells in the presence of LIF and HepG2 conditioned medium. This gave rise to a morphologically distinct population of EPL cells with different phenotypic markers and altered differentiation properties. EPL cell formation was reversible in the presence of LIF by withdrawing the conditioned medium.
Tropepe et al. (Soc. Neuroscience 25: abstract 205.18, 1999) reported that a small percentage of mouse ES cells proliferate in serum-free low-density conditions in the presence of LIF, and form sphere colonies that may subsequently differentiate into neurons and glia. A small proportion of cells from primary colonies can generate secondary colonies independent of LIF but dependent on the factor FGF2. Blocking BMP signaling by adding noggin protein increases the proportion of cells forming neural stem cells. About 60% of single ES cells cultured for 24 h in serum-free medium express nestin.
Pluripotent Stem Cells of Human Origin
Work on human pluripotent stem (hPS) cells has been more than a decade behind the experiments conducted on mouse cells. Human PS cells are more fragile and more difficult to isolate. Furthermore, they cannot be maintained in an undifferentiated state under conditions developed for mouse cells.
Recently, some of these challenges have been overcome. Thomson et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,843,780; Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:7844, 1995) were the first to successfully culture stem cells from non-human primates. Thomson et al. also derived human embryonic stem (hES) cell lines from human blastocysts (Science 282:114, 1998). Gearhart and coworkers derived human embryonic germ (hEG) cell lines from fetal gonadal tissue (Shamblott et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:13726, 1998 and International Patent Publication No. WO 98/43679). Both hES and hEG cells have the long-sought characteristics of hPS cells: they are capable of long-term proliferation in vitro without differentiating, they retain a normal karyotype, and they retain the capacity to differentiate to a number of different derivatives.
Human pluripotent stem cells differ from mouse ES cells in a number of important respects. Thomson et al. and Gearhart et al. maintained their hPS cells in an undifferentiated state by culturing on a layer of embryonic feeder cells. In contrast, mouse ES cells can be grown easily without feeder cells in appropriate conditions, particularly the presence of leukemia inhibiting factor (LIF) or other ligands that bind receptors that associate with gp130. However, LIF alone has not been reported to prevent differentiation of hPS in the absence of feeders. Another difference is that mouse ES cells can be plated in a completely dispersed fashion; and grow quite happily to produce undifferentiated ES progeny. In contrast, single hES cells are unstable; and propagation of hES cells typically requires that they be passaged as clusters of cells during each replating.
Current efforts to differentiate hPS cells involve the formation of cell aggregates, either by overgrowth of hPS cells cultured on feeders, or by forming embryoid bodies in suspension culture. The embryoid bodies generate cell populations with a highly heterogeneous mixture of phenotypes, representing a spectrum of different cell lineages—which depends in part on the size of each aggregate and the culture conditions.
Large-scale commercial production of committed precursor cells or fully differentiated cells from hPS cells would require a differentiation protocol that did not involve producing cell aggregates or embryoid bodies. In addition, there is a need for cell populations that have relatively uniform and reproducible characteristics for use in drug screening and human therapy.
Accordingly, there is a need for new technology that facilitates derivation of differentiated cells from human pluripotent stem cells.